8/9/11
Biology Revision
Topic:From Cells to Organisms

What is a Cell?
Definition:
Cells are tiny room-like structures that all living things are made of.They are the basic units of living things.

All cells are made of matter,which are made up of the elements carbon,hydrogen and oxygen.

Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

• Unicellular organisms are living things that are made up of only one cell
• Multicellular organisms are living things that are made up of many cells.

Inside cells
Organisms have many different kinds of cells which exist in various shapes and sizes.However,all cells share some common features.

Cell's Part
Parts of Animal Cells

• Cell Membrane
• Mitochondrion
• Cytoplasm
• Small Vacuoles
• Nucleus

Part of Plant Cells

• Cell Membrane
• Mitochondrion
• Cytoplasm
• Big Vacuoles
• Nucleus
• Cell Wall
• Chloroplasts

Function of Parts of Cells

• Cell Membrane-Thin layer around the cell,allowing shape of cell to change partially permeable
• Mitochondrion-Small spherical or rod-shaped & Involved in the release of energy from food substances during cell respiration
• Cytoplasm-Jelly-like substance that fills the cell & Contains water and many other substances(fats,carbohydrates and proteins) where chemical reaction occur
• Small Vacuoles-Small spaces containing air,liquid or food particles & Numerous in animals
• Big Vacuoles-Single Large space containing liquid(cell sap) & Cell sap contains water and dissolved substances(sugar and salt) & Cell sap keeps cell firm by taking in water
• Nucleus-Control cell activities & Contains chromosomes
• Cell Wall-Thick later around the cell & Made up of tough substance(cellulose) & Supports the cell and give it a regular shape
• Chloroplasts-Small disc-like structure found in the cell of green plants & Contains chlorophyll(which is needed in the process of photosynthesis)

Mitochondrion

• Sausage-shaped like organelles; double membrane with inner membrane thrown into folds called cristae
• Site of respiration to release energy from food used by cell for growth and reproduction

Ribosomes

• Small round structures that are either attached to the rough endo plasmic reticulum or lie freely in cytoplasm
• They are needed to make proteins in the cell

What are Chromosomes?
Definition:
They are the thread-like objects found in the nucleus in each cell.
They carry information which controls:

• How the cell works
• What the organism will look like

Different organisms contains different numbers of chromosomes in their cells

• In a human cell there are 46(or 23 pairs) of chromosomes
• Each chromosome is made up of many genes;each gene contains instructions for a different feature of an organism

Difference between animal cells and plant cells
Animal Cells

• Does it have a cell wall?     No
• Does it have a cell membrane?     Yes
• Does it have a nucleus?     Yes
• Does it have a cytoplasm?     Yes
• Does it have vacuoles?     Yes-many,but small
• Does it have chloroplasts?     No
• Shape?     Can Change

Plant Cells

• Does it have a cell wall?     Yes
• Does it have a cell membrane?     Yes
• Does it have a nucleus?     Yes
• Does it have a cytoplasm?     Yes
• Does it have vacuoles?     Yes-One or a few,Large
• Shape?     Regular(Doesn't change)
• Does it have chloroplasts?     Present only in cells of green plants

Dead cells
A living plant cell has a cell wall,nucleus and cytoplasm

When a cell dies,the nucleus and cytoplasm become part of the cell wall.The remainder of the cell becomes a large space containing only air

Example:cork(A secondary tissue produced by the cork cambium, and forms the outer part of the periderm in a woody plant)

Cells-Two dimensional or Three dimensional
Question:Are cells two-dimesional or threee-dimensional?
 Answer: Cells are actually three-dimensional,not flat

Types of Cells
Different types of cells in a multicellular organism come in different shapes and sizes

Each type of cells does a particular job
Fat cells-Stores fat
Nerve cells-Carry messages
Guard cells-Allow gases in and out of leaves

Modification of cell structure

• A cell can become specialized for a specific function.
• There are many different types of cells in organisms.They differ in size and shape and are adapted to perform specific functions.

1. Root hair cell
2. Red blood cell
3. Xylem cells

Root hair cell

• Each root hair is a projection from an epidermal cell of the root.It extends into the soil to absorb water and dissolved minerals
• Root hairs are adapted for efficient absorption of water and dissolved mineral because:

1. Each root has a large number of root hair-increase the total surface for absorption
2. Very thin cell walls-increase the speed of absorption
3. Large vacuole to absorb as much water as it can
4. It is long and narrow-increase the surface area to volume ratio of the cell for faster absorption of water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil

14/8/2011
Biology revision
Topic:Digestion

Why do we eat?
Our diet is made up of food and drink we consume everyday.

Reasons for eating:

• Grow new cells and tissues
• Repair damaged tissues
• Provide energy for work,movement and to maintain body temperature
• Maintain body functions such as breathing and keeping the heart beating

The substances in our diet that keep us healthy are called nutrients.They comprise of carbohydrates,proteins and fats.

What are Carbohydrates
Definition:
Carbohydrates provide body cells with the energy they need.

Carbon,hydrogen and oxygen make up carbohydrates.Foods rich in carbohydrates are starch and sugars.
Examples:Bread,rice,beans,pasta,potatoes(starch);apples,bananas,grapes,raisins,chocolates and soft drinks(sugars)

Excess carbohydrates in our body turns into fats and stored.Our fats are used for providing energy only if our carbohydrates intake is low.

What are Proteins
Definition:
Proteins are the main substances used for growth of new cells and the repair of damaged tissues.They also provide energy when the body lacks carbohydrates and fats.

Carbon,hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen(and sulfur) make up proteins.
Examples:Fish,meat,eggs,yoghurt,cheese,beans

• Proteins are used to replace damaged cells,repair and growth of damaged tissues.
• Forms structures of cells
• Form enzymes
• Strengthens teeth and bones
• Source of energy if body do not get enough carbohydrates and fats

What are Fats
Definition:
Fats are important sources of energy that can provide twice as much energy as carbohydrates.

Carbon,hydrogen and oxygen make up fats
Examples:Butter,margarine,milk,cheese,nuts and fatty parts of meat

• Sources of energy once carbohydrates have been depleted
• Provides insulation against the cold(keep warm)
• Cushion our internal organs
• Part of cell membrane

Why Digestion
Digestion is the process whereby large,insoluble food molecules are broken down into smaller,soluble molecules in the body.

The smaller molecules can then by absorbed into cells where they are used for growth,repair and for respiration to provide energy.

How are the large molecules changed into smaller molecules?
The body produces special substances called digestive enzymes to digest food.These enzymes cut up the large molecules into smaller molecules and speed up the process of digestion without being used up.

Complex,large food molecules-->digestion--->simpler,smaller food molecules

Each enzymes digests one type of food only

• Carbohyrates--Carbohydrase-->Glucose
• Proteins--Protease--> Amino Acids
• Fats--Lipase-->Fatty Acids and Glycerol
• Vitamins & Mineral & Water---------->Absorbed into blood without digestion

The Human Digestive System
The digestive system comprises two major parts:Organs of the alimentary canal and Organs joined to the alimentary canal.

Organs of the alimentary canal :Mouth,oesophagus,stomach,small intestine,large intestine,anus
Organs joined to the alimentary canal:Liver,gall bladder,pancreas

What happens once food enters the digestive system
In the mouth

• Food stimulates our teeth to chew
• Food is broken down into smaller pieces-increase its surface area for enzymes activity
• Food also stimulates salivary glands to secrete saliva
• Saliva softens food
• Contains enzyme carbohydrase(Salivary amylase) to digest starch to maltose

The proteins and fats have not been digested chemically yet.The partly digested food rolls into small balls and is swallowed into the oesophagus.

Oesophagus

• No digestion of food here
• Elastic,muscular walls to push food down to stomach by the process peristalsis

In the stomach

• Food mixes with the gastric juice secreted by the stomach walls when the stomach churns
• Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid and enzyme protease
• Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach acidic and kills bacteria in food
• Enzyme protease digest complex proteins into simpler proteins
• No digestion of carbohydrates and fats in the stomach

In the small intestine
3 digestive juices present
Bile(emulsification)

• Greenish liquid made in liver
• Released in small intestine
• Functions to break fats into small droplets to make them easier to digest
• (Increase surface area)

Pancreatic juice

• Made in pancrease
• Flows into the small intestine
• Contains digestive enzymes carbohydrase,protease and lipase

Intestinal juice

• Produced in the walls of small intestine
• Also Contains digestive enzymes carbohyrase,protease,lipase

The digestive enzymes present digest fats and complete the digestion of maltose and simpler proteins.

• Maltose--Carbohydrase in pancreatic juice and intestinal juice->Glucose
• Simpler proteins--Protease  in pancreatic juice and intestinal juice->Amino acids
• Fats--Lipase  in pancreatic juice and intestinal juice->Fatty acids and glycerol

In the small intestine

• Digestion of food completes
• Large complex molecules digested to simple soluble end products
• Food stays in the small intestine for about 5 hours
• Digested food pases through the walls of the small intestines and absorbed into the blood
• Water and indigestible food move to the large intestine

In the Large intestines

• Only food that cannot be digested reaches the large intestines
• As food passes through,a lot of water is removed and reabsorbed into the body
• Undigested food passes out of the body through the anus as faeces

How does Food pass through the digestive system
Digested food is made up of:

• Small soluble molecules-absorbed through the walls of small intestines
• Enters the large intestines and removed through the anus as faeces

Making absorption easier

• The finger-like parts,called villi,provide a large surface area for quicker absorption of digested food into the blood

Structure of small intestine that make absorption easier

• Long 7 meters-Increase the surface area for quicker absorption of food and more time for the absorption of food
• Wall only 1-celled thick-Allows digested food to pass through easily and quickly
• Many blood capillaries-Carry digested food away quickly from the small intestines

14/8/2011
Biology Revision
Topic:Biological Molecules

4 Components of biological molecules

• Water
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats

Water
It is made up of the elements Hydrogen and Oxygen
Functions:

• For digestion
• A major component of cells(cytoplasm,vacuole)
• A major component of blood
• As a solvent
• For transport
• As waste product
• To prevent dehydration

Carbohydrates
It is made up of the elements Carbon,Hydrogen,Oxygen

Glycogen-Referred to as "animal starch"

• Storage form of carbohydrates in animals and in fungi
• Made from glucose
• Excess glucose is joined together in a very long chain to form glycogen
• In mammals,stored mainly in liver and muscles
• Glycogen is broken down to glucose when energy is needed

Proteins
It is made up of the elements Carbon,Hydrogen,Oxygen,Nitrogen

• Sulfur and phosphorus are also present
• Built up from simpler compounds known as amino acids
• 22 naturally occuring amino acids in plant and animal proteins
• Amino acids link up with one another to form long chains

Fats
It is made up of the elements carbon,hydrogen and oxygen

• No generalised formula
• Energy-providing food
• Large molecules made up of fatty acids and glycerol

Testing For Biological Molecules

Testing for starch
Iodine Test

1. Place the food on a white tile
2. Place 2-3 drops of iodine onto the food
3. The food containing starch will turn blue-black where the iodine touches them

Testing for reducing sugars(glucose)
Benedict's Test

1. Add equal amount of Benedict's solution to some gluocose solution in a test tube
2. Shake the test tube and heat it in a beaker of boiling water for 3-5 minutes.
3. A red precipitate will form

Testing for proteins
Biuret's Test

1. Add equal amount of sodium hydroxide solution to some egg white solution in a test tube
2. Shake the mixture
3. Add 1% copper sulphate solution,drop by drop.Shake the test tube after every drop
4. A purple colour will form

Testing for fats
Ethanol Emulsion Test

1. Add some alcohol to a small drop of oil in a test tube.Shake the mixture
2. Add the same amount of water to the mixture
3. A white,cloudy emulsion will form

14/8/2011
Chemistry Revision
Topic:Mixture

Definition: A mixture is made up of 2 or more substances not chemically combined together
Properties of Mixtures

• The substances in a mixture can be mixed in any proportion
• When a mixture is formed,no chemical reactions like heat or light is given out or taken in
• A mixture has the properties of the substances that make it up
• A mixture can be separated into its componentss by physical methods

Examples of mixture:Air,sea water,beer,blood,lemonade,soil,tomato sauce,petrol,soup,milk,bronze

14/8/2011
Chemistry Revision
Topic:Compounds

Definition of a compound: A compound is made up of two or more substance chemically combined together.
Characteristics of Compound

• Compounds have different properties from the element they are made of
• The different elements in a compound are joined together in a fixed proportion by mass
• Chemical reaction happen,heat or light is usually given out or taken in
• Compounds can only be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods

Examples of some compound: Water,nitrogen oxide,common salt,chalk,sugar,sand,copper chloride,sodium chloride,alcohol,magnesium oxide.

14/8/2011
Chemistry Revision
Periodic Table(1st 20 element)

Definition of an element: An element is a pure substance which cannot be further broken down into simpler substance by any chemical reaction.It is the simplest form of matter.
Memorize:
Hydrogen,helium,lithium,beryllium,boron,carbon,nitrogen,oxygen,fluorine,neon,
sodium,magnesium,aluminium,phosphorus,sulfur,chlorine,argon,potassium,calcium

The metals are lithium beryllium,sodium,magnesium,aluminium,potassium,calcium
A horizontal row in the periodic table is called period
A vertical column in the periodic table is called group
Vertical column has the similar properties
Horizontal row has a gradual change of metallic properties from the left to non-metallic properties to the right
Properties of metal

• Shiny Appearance
• Malleable and Ductile and Brittle
• High melting and boiling point(except for sodium.potassium and mercury)
• Solid at room temperature and pressure(except mercury)
• Good Conductor of Heat and Electricity